Age-Related Cognitive Changes: The Importance of Modulating Factors

  1. Rut, Correia
  2. Jose, Barroso 1
  3. Antonieta, Nieto 1
  1. 1 Universidad de La Laguna
    info

    Universidad de La Laguna

    San Cristobal de La Laguna, España

    ROR https://ror.org/01r9z8p25

Revista:
Journal of Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology

ISSN: 2469-5858

Ano de publicación: 2018

Volume: 4

Número: 2

Tipo: Artigo

DOI: 10.23937/2469-5858/1510048 GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openAcceso aberto editor

Outras publicacións en: Journal of Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology

Obxectivos de Desenvolvemento Sustentable

Resumo

The study of age-related cognitive changes over the last years reveals a considerable variability in available results. The methodological heterogeneity observed in the aging field can significantly contribute to this observed variability, which creates a confusing scenario for beginners in this topic. The main aim of the present article is to extract a clear depiction of the current state of knowledge about age-related cognitive changes regardless of the methodological approach followed by researchers. In this sense, a specific and differential pattern of impairment seems to be present in most cognitive domains, which highlights the existence of a great intra-domain variability in terms of impairment. We conclude it seems to be enough evidence about the influence of certain modulating factors such as benefit from schooling and gender on cognitive aging, and not taking these factors into account when studying age-related cognitive changes contributes to the scarce agreement found in available results.

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Hofer S, Sliwinski M (2001) Understanding Ageing. An evaluation of research designs for assessing the interdependence of ageing-related changes. Gerontology 47: 341-352.
  • Rabbitt P, McInnes L, Diggle P, Holland F, Bent N, et al. (2004) The university of manchester longitudinal study of cognition in normal healthy old age, 1983 through 2003. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 11: 245-279.
  • Salthouse T (2010) Selective review of cognitive aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 16: 754-760.
  • Salthouse T (1996) The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev 103: 403-428.
  • Craik F, Byrd M (1982) Aging and cognitive deficits: The role of attentional resources. In: FIM Craik, S Trehub Aging and cognitive processes. Plenum Press, New York, 191-211.
  • McCoy S, Tun P, Cox L, Colangelo M, Stewart R, et al. (2005) Hearing loss and perceptual effort: Downstream effects on older adults' memory for speech. Q J Exp Psychol A 58: 22-33.
  • Wingfield A, Tun P, McCoy S (2005) Hearing loss in older adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science 14: 144-148.
  • Van Hooren S, Valentijn A, Bosma H, Ponds R, van Boxtel M, et al. (2007) Cognitive functioning in healthy older adults aged 64-81: a cohort study into the effects of age, sex, and education. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 14: 40-54.
  • Haaland K, Price L, Larue A (2003) What does the WMS-III tell us about memory changes with normal aging? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 9: 89-96.
  • Bartrés-Faz D, Clemente IC, Junqué C (2001) Cambios en la sustancia blanca y rendimiento cognitivo en el envejecimiento. Revista de Neurologia 33: 347-353.
  • Gunning-Dixon F, Raz N (2000) The cognitive correlates of white matter abnormalities in normal aging: A quantitative review. Neuropsychology 14: 224-232.
  • Bunce D, Macready A (2005) Processing speed, executive function, and age differences in remembering and knowing. Q J Exp Psychol A 58: 155-168.
  • Sternäng O, Wahlin A, Nilsson Lars-Göran (2008) Examination of the processing speed account in a population-based longitudinal study with narrow age cohort design. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 49: 419-428.
  • Finkel D, Pedersen N (2004) Processing speed and longitudinal trajectories of change for cognitive abilities: The swedish adoption/twin study of aging. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 11: 325-345.
  • Keys B, White D (2000) Exploring the relationship between age, executive abilities, and psychomotor speed. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 6: 76-82.
  • Wilson R, Bienias J, Evans D, Bennett D (2004) Religious Orders Study: overview and change in cognitive and motor speed. Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition 11: 280-303.
  • Kral V (1962) Senescent forgetfulness: benign and malignant. Can Med Assoc J 86: 257-260.
  • Blackford R, La Rue A (1989) Criteria for diagnosing age-associated memory impairment: Proposed improvements from the field. Developmental Neuropsychology 5: 295-306.
  • Crook T, Bartus R, Ferris S, Whitehouse P (1986) Age-associated memory impairment: Proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change-report of a National Institute of Mental Health Work Group. Developmental Neuropsychology 2: 261-276.
  • Bartrés-Faz D, Clemente I, Junqué C (1999) Alteración cognitiva en el envejecimiento normal: nosología y estado actual. Revista de Neurologia 29: 64-70.
  • Crook T, Bahar H, Sudilovsky A (1987) Age-associated memory impairment: diagnostic criteria and treatment strategies. Int J Neurol 21: 73-82.
  • Junqué C, Jurado M (1994) Envejecimiento y demencias. Martínez Roca, Barcelona.
  • Luo L, Craik F (2008) Aging and memory: A cognitive approach. Can J Psychiatry 53: 346-353.
  • Nilsson LG (2003) Memory function in normal aging. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 179: 7-13.
  • Rönnlund M, Lovden M, Nilsson LG (2001) Adult Age Differences in Tower of Hanoi Performance: Influence from Demographic and Cognitive Variables. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 8: 269-283.
  • Rönnlund Michael, Lövden Martin, Nilsson Lars-Göran (2008) Cross-sectional versus longitudinal age gradients of tower of Hanoi performance: The role of practice effects and cohort differences in education. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 15: 40-67.
  • Vakil E, Agmon-Ashkenazi D (1997) Baseline performance and learning rate of procedural and declarative memory tasks: younger versus older adults. The Journals of Gerontology 52: 229-234.
  • Vakil E, Hoffman Y, Myzliek D (1998) Active versus passive procedural learning in older and younger adults. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 8: 31-41.
  • Hubert V, Beaunieux H, Chételat G, Platel H, Landeau B, et al. (2009) Age-related changes in the cerebral substrates of cognitive procedural learning. Hum Brain Mapp 30: 1374-1386.
  • Nilsson L, Adolfsson R, Bäckman L, de Frias C, Molander B, et al. (2004) Betula: A Prospective Cohort Study on Memory, Health and Aging. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition 11: 134-148.
  • Beatty W, Salmon D, Tröster A (2002) Do Primary and Supplementary Measures of Semantic Memory Predict Cognitive Decline by Patients with Alzheimer's Disease? Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition 9: 1-10.
  • Perbal S, Droit-Volet S, Isingrini M, Pouthas V (2002) Relationships Between Age-Related Changes in Time Estimation and Age-Related Changes in Processing Speed, Attention, and Memory. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 9: 201-216.
  • Palfai T, Halperin S, Hoyer W (2003) Age inequalities in recognition memory: effects of stimulus presentation time and list repetitions. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 10: 134-140.
  • Weible J, Nuest B, Welty J, Turner M (2002) Demonstrating the Effects of Presentation Rate on Aging Memory Using the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT). Cognition 9: 38-47.
  • Luo L, Hendriks T, Craik F (2007) Age differences in recollection: three patterns of enhanced encoding. Psychol Aging 22: 269-280.
  • Troyer A, Häfliger A, Cadieux M, Craik F (2006) Name and face learning in older adults: effects of level of processing, self-generation, and intention to learn. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 61: 67-74.
  • Davidson P, Troyer A, Moscovitch M (2006) Frontal lobe contributions to recognition and recall: linking basic research with clinical evaluation and remediation. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 12: 210-223.
  • Eskes G, Szostak C, Stuss DT (2003) Role of the frontal lobes in implicit and explicit retrieval tasks. Cortex 39: 847-869.
  • Gabrieli JD (1996) Memory systems analyses of mnemonic disorders in aging and age-related diseases. PNAS 93: 13534-13540.
  • Iachini I, Iavarone A, Senese V, Ruotolo F, Ruggiero G (2009) Visuospatial memory in healthy elderly, AD and MCI: A review. Curr Aging Sci 2: 43-59.
  • Bäckman L, Wahlin Å, Small B, Herlitz A, Winblad B, et al. (2004) Cognitive functioning in aging and dementia: The kungsholmen project. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 11: 212-244.
  • Viggiano M, Righi S, Galli G (2006) Category-specific visual recognition as affected by aging and expertise. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 42: 329-338.
  • Moffat SD (2009) Aging and spatial navigation: What do we know and where do we go? Neuropsychol Rev 19: 478-489.
  • Ardila A, Rosselli M (1989) Neuropsychological characteristics of normal aging. Developmental Neuropsychology 5: 307-320.
  • Ardila A, Ostrosky-Solis F, Rosselli M, Gomez C (2000) Age-Related Cognitive Decline During Normal Aging: The Complex Effect of Education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 15: 495-513.
  • Anstey K, Dain S, Andrews S, Drobny J (2002) Visual Abilities in Older Adults Explain Age-Differences in Stroop and Fluid Intelligence but Not Face Recognition: Implications for the Vision-Cognition Connection. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 9: 253-265.
  • Ogden J (1990) Spatial abilities and deficits in aging and age-related disorders. In: F Boller, J Grafman, Handbook of neuropsychology. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 265-278.
  • Jefferson AL, Wong S, Bolen E, Ozonoff A, Green RC, et al. (2006) Cognitive correlates of HVOT performance differ between individuals with mild cognitive impairment and normal controls. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 21: 405-412.
  • Hooper H (1983) Hooper visual organization test (VOT). W.P. Services, Los Angeles.
  • Lezak M, Howieson D, Loring D (2004) Neuropsychological assessment. (4th edn), Oxford University Press, New York.
  • Baldelli M, Motta M, Toschi A, DeCarolis S (1991) Spatial memory alterations during aging in males and females. Archives of Gerontology 2: 95-98.
  • Bisiacchi P, Borella E, Bergamaschi S, Carretti B, Mondini S (2008) Interplay between memory and executive functions in normal and pathological aging. Journal of clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 30: 723-733.
  • Flicker C, Ferris S, Crook T, Reisberg B (1988) Equivalent spatial-rotation deficits in normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 10: 387-399.
  • Glass JM (2007) Visual function and cognitive aging: Differential role of contrast sensitivity in verbal versus spatial tasks. Psychology and Aging 22: 233-238.
  • Mitteberg W, Seidenberg M, O'leary D, DiGiulio D (1989) Changes in cerebral functioning associated with normal aging. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 11: 918-932.
  • Baltes P, Lindenberger U (1997) Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognitive functions across the adult life span: a new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychol Aging 12: 12-21.
  • Schneider B, Pichora-Fuller M (2000) Implications of perceptual deterioration for cognitive aging research. In: F Craik, T Salthouse, The Handbook of cognitive aging. (2nd edn), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers Mahwah, NJ.
  • Stankov L, Anstey K (1997) Health and cognitive ageing: The emerging role of sensorimotor abilities. Australasian Journal on Ageing 16: 34-39.
  • Valentijn S, Van Boxtel M, Van Hooren S (2005) Change in sensory functioning predicts change in cognitive functioning: results from a 6-year follow-up in the maastricht aging study. J Am Geriatr Soc 53: 374-380.
  • Wingfield A (2000) Speech perception and the comprehension of spoken language in adult aging. In: D Park, N Schwarz, Cognitive aging: A primer. Psychology Press-Taylor& Francis, Philadelphia, 175-195.
  • Kemper S, Sumner A (2001) The Structure of Verbal Abilities in Young and Older Adults. Psychol Aging 16: 312-322.
  • Verhaeghen P (2003) Aging and vocabulary score: A meta-analysis. Psychol Aging 18: 332-339.
  • Burke D, Shafto M (2004) Aging and Language Production. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 13: 21-24.
  • Mortensen L, Meyer A, Humphreys G (2006) Age-related effects on speech production: A review. Language and Cognitive Processes, 21: 238-290.
  • Barresi B, Nicholas Marjorie, Tabor Connor L, Obler Loraine K, Albert Martin L (2000) Semantic Degradation and Lexical Access in Age-Related Naming Failures. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 7: 169-178.
  • Feyereisen P (1997) A meta-analytic procedure shows an age-related decline in picture naming: Comments on Goulet, Ska, and Kahn (1994) J Speech Lang Hear Res 40: 1328-1333.
  • Tsang H, Lee T (2003) The effect of ageing on confrontational naming ability. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 18: 81-89.
  • Goulet P, Ska B, Kahn HJ (1994) Is there a decline in picture naming with advancing age? Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 37: 629-644.
  • Mackay A, Connor L, Albert M, Obler L (2002) Noun and verb retrieval in healthy aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 8: 764-770.
  • Nicholas M, Obler L, Albert M, Goodglass H (1985) Lexical retrieval in healthy aging. Cortex 21: 595-606.
  • Cuetos F (2003) Lexical processing in Spanish patients with probable Alzheimer's disease. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 17: 549-561.
  • Grossman M, Koenig P, Glosser G, DeVita C, Moore P, et al. (2003) Neural basis for semantic memory difficulty in Alzheimer's disease: an fMRI study. Brain 126: 292-311.
  • Auriacombe S, Fabrigoule C, Lafont S, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues JF (2001) Letter and category fluency in normal elderly participants: a population-based study. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 8: 98-108.
  • Brickman A, Paul R, Cohen R, Williams L, MacGregor K, et al. (2005) Category and letter verbal fluency across the adult lifespan: relationship to EEG theta power. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 20: 561-573.
  • Kempler D, Teng E, Dick M, Taussig I, Davis D (1998) The effects of age, education, and ethnicity on verbal fluency. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 4: 531-538.
  • Loonstra S, Tarlow R, Sellers H (2001) COWAT metanorms across age, education, and gender. Applied Neuropsychology 8: 161-166.
  • Parkin J, Walter BM (1992) Recollective experience, normal aging, and frontal dysfunction. Psychol Aging 7: 290-298.
  • Rodríguez-Aranda C, Martinussen M (2006) Age-related differences in performance of phonemic verbal fluency measured by Controlled Oral Word Association Task (COWAT): a meta-analytic study. Dev Neuropsychol 30: 697-717.
  • Tombaugh T, Kozak J, Rees L (1999) Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 14: 167-177.
  • Foldi N, Helm-Estabrooks N, Redfield J, Nickel D (2003) Perseveration in Normal Aging: A Comparison of Perseveration Rates on Design Fluency and Verbal Generative Tasks. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 10: 268-280.
  • Parkin AJ, Java RI (1999) Deterioration of frontal lobe function in normal aging: influences of fluid intelligence versus perceptual speed. Neuropsychology 13: 539-545.
  • Troyer A, Moscovitch M, Winocur G (1997) Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: Evidence from younger and older healthy adults. Neuropsychology 11: 138-146.
  • Bolla K, Gray S, Resnick S, Galante R, Kawas C (1998) Category and Letter Fluency in Highly Educated Older Adults. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 12: 330-338.
  • Burke D, Shafto M (2008) Language and Aging. In: F Craik, TA Salthouse, The Handbook of Aging and Cognition. (3rd edn), Psychology Press, New York, 373-443.
  • Fan J, McCandliss B, Sommer T, Raz A, Posner M (2002) Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. J Cogn Neurosci 14: 340-347.
  • Posner M, Petersen S (1990) The attention system of the human brain. Annu Rev Neurosci 13: 25-42.
  • Stuss D (2006) Frontal lobes and attention: processes and networks, fractionation and integration. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 12: 261-271.
  • Andrés P, Parmentier F, Escera C (2006) The effect of age on involuntary capture of attention by irrelevant sounds: a test of the frontal hypothesis of aging. Neuropsychologia 44: 2564-2568.
  • Mahoney J, Verghese J, Goldin Y, Lipton R, Holtzer R (2010) Alerting, orienting, and executive attention in older adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 16: 877-889.
  • McDowd J, Shaw R (2000) Attention and aging: A functional perspective. In: F Craik, S Timothy, The handbook of aging and cognition. (2nd edn), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, 221-292.
  • Román F, Sánchez JP (1998) Cambios neuropsicológicos asociados al envejecimiento normal. Anales de Psicologia 14: 27-43.
  • Zec R (1995) The neuropsychology of aging. Experimental Gerontology 30: 431-442.
  • Kramer A, Madden D (2008) Attention. In: Fergus Craik, T Salthouse, The handbook of aging and cognition. (3rd edn), Psychology Press, New York, 189-249.
  • Ballesteros S, Nilsson Lars-Goran, Lemaire P (2009) Ageing, cognition, and neuroscience: An introduction. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 21: 161-175.
  • Lustig C, Hasher L, Tonev S (2001) Inhibitory control over the present and the past. The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 13: 107-122.
  • Milham M, Erickson K, Banich M, Kramer A, Webb A, et al. (2002) Attentional control in the aging brain: Insights from an fMRI study of the stroop task. Brain Cogn 49: 277-296.
  • Kray J, Li K, Lindenberger U (2002) Age-related changes in task-switching components: The role of task uncertainty. Brain Cogn 49: 363-381.
  • Andrés P (2003) Frontal cortex as the central executive of working memory: Time to revise our view. Cortex 39: 871-895.
  • Baddeley A (1998) Memoria humana: teoría y práctica. (1st edn), MacGraw Hill Interamericana de España, Madrid.
  • Chaytor N, Schmitter-Edgecombe M (2004) Working memory and aging: A cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis using a self-ordered pointing task. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 10: 489-503.
  • Haut M, Chen S, Edwards S (1999) Working memory, semantics, and normal aging. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 6: 179-186.
  • Braver T, West R (2008) Working memory, executive control and aging. In F Craik, T Salthouse, The handbook of aging and cognition. (3rd edn), Psychology Press, New York.
  • Vogels W (2002) Age-related changes in event-related prospective memory performance: A comparison of four prospective memory tasks. Brain Cogn 49: 341-362.
  • Reese CM, Cherry KE (2002) The effects of age, ability, and memory monitoring on prospective memory task performance. Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition 9: 98-113.
  • Henry J, MacLeod M, Phillips L, Crawford J (2004) A meta-analytic review of prospective memory and aging. Psychol Aging 19: 27-39.
  • Heaton R (1981) A manual for the Wisconsin card sorting test. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL.
  • Woodruff-Pak D (1997) The Neuropsychology of Aging. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK.
  • Ridderinkhof K (2002) Perseverative behavior and adaptive control in older adults: Performance monitoring, rule induction, and set shifting. Brain and Cognition 49: 382-401.
  • Taconnat L, Isingrini M (2009) Ageing and organisation strategies in free recall: The role of cognitive flexibility. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 21: 347-366.
  • West R (1996) An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin 120: 272-292.
  • West R (2001) The transient nature of executive control processes in younger and older adults. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 13: 91-105.
  • Tisserand D, Jolles J (2003) Special issue on the involvement of prefrontal networks in cognitive ageing. Cortex 39: 1107-1128.
  • Christensen H (2001) What cognitive changes can be expected with normal ageing? Aust N Z J Psychiatry 35: 768-775.
  • Hedden T, Gabrieli J (2004) Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive neuroscience. Nat Rev Neurosci 5: 87-96.
  • Anstey K, Christensen H (2000) Education, activity, health, blood pressure and apolipoprotein E as predictors of cognitive change in old age: A review. Gerontology 46: 163-177.
  • Payton A (2009) The impact of genetic research on our understanding of normal cognitive ageing: 1995 to 2009. Neuropsychol Rev 19: 451-477.
  • Wisdom N, Callahan J, Hawkins K (2011) The effects of apolipoprotein E on non-impaired cognitive functioning: A meta-analysis. Neurobiol Aging 32: 63-74.
  • Ylikoski R, Ylikoski A, Raininko R, Keskivaara P, Sulkava R, et al. (2000) Cardiovascular diseases, health status, brain imaging findings and neuropsychological functioning in neurologically healthy elderly individuals. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 30: 115-130.
  • Karp A, Kåreholt I, Qiu C, Bellander T, Winblad B, et al. (2004) Relation of Education and Occupation-based Socioeconomic Status to Incident Alzheimer's Disease. American Journal of Epidemiology 159: 175-183.
  • Letenneur L, Gilleron V, Commenges D, Helmer C, Orgogozo J, et al. (1999) Are sex and educational level independent predictors of dementia and Alzheimer's disease? Incidence data from the PAQUID project. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 66: 177-183.
  • Lindsay J, Danielle Laurin, René Verreault, Réjean Hébert, Barbara Helliwell, et al. (2002) Risk Factors for Alzheimer's Disease: A Prospective Analysis from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. American Journal of Epidemiology 156: 445-453.
  • Mortimer J, Snowdon D, Markesbery W (2003) Head Circumference, Education and Risk of Dementia: Findings from the Nun Study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 25: 671-679.
  • Ott A, Breteler M, Harskamp F (1995) Papers prevalence of alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: Association with education. The Rotterdam study. BMJ 310: 970-973.
  • Capitani E, Barbarotto R, Laiacona M (1996) Does education influence the age-related cognitive decline? A further inquiry. Developmental Neuropsychology 12: 231-240.
  • Bosma H, Van Boxtel M, Ponds R, Houx P, Jolles J (2003) Education and age-related cognitive decline: the contribution of mental workload. Educational Gerontology 29: 165-173.
  • Jacqmin-Gadda H, Fabrigoule C, Commenges D, Dartigues JF (1997) A 5-year longitudinal study of the Mini-Mental State Examination in normal aging. American Journal of Epidemiology 145: 498-506.
  • Meijer W (2006) Cognitive aging: Effects of education and task demands. Neuropsych Publishers, Maastricht.
  • Van der Elst W, Van Boxtel M, Van Breukelen G, Jolles J (2006) Normative data for the Animal, Profession and Letter M Naming verbal fluency tests for Dutch speaking participants and the effects of age, education, and sex. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 12: 80-89.
  • Van Dijk K, Van Gerven P, Van Boxtel M, Van der Elst W, Jolles J (2008) No protective effects of education during normal cognitive aging: results from the 6-year follow-up of the Maastricht Aging Study. Psychol Aging 23: 119-130.
  • Manly J, Jacobs D, Sano M, Bell K (1999) Effect of literacy on neuropsychological test performance in nondemented, education-matched elders. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 5: 191-202.
  • Manly J, Jacobs D, Touradji P, Small S, Stern Y (2002) Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 8: 341-348.
  • Manly J, Touradji P, Tang M, Stern Y (2003) Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 25: 680-690.
  • Jones RN, Manly J, Glymour MM, Rentz DM, Jefferson AL, et al. (2011) Conceptual and measurement challenges in research on cognitive reserve. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 17: 1-9.
  • Reed B, Dowling M, Farias ST, Sonnen J, Strauss M, et al. (2011) Cognitive activities during adulthood are more important than education in building reserve. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 17: 1-10.
  • Barnes D, Tager I, Satariano W, Yaffe K (2004) The relationship between literacy and cognition in well-educated elders. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 59: 390-395.
  • Blair J, Spreen O (1989) Predicting premorbid IQ: A revision of the national adult reading test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 3: 129-136.
  • Wilkinson G (1993) Wide Range Achievement Test 3. Administration manual. Jastak Associates, Inc, Wilmington, DE.
  • Correia R, Nieto A, Ferreira D, Sabucedo M, Barroso J (2015) Fund of Information is More Strongly Associated with Neuropsychological Functioning Than Education in Older Spanish Adults. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 30: 310-321.
  • Aartsen MJ, Martin M, Zimprich D (2004) Gender differences in level and change in cognitive functioning. Results from the longitudinal aging study amsterdam. Gerontology 50: 35-38.
  • De Frias C, Nilsson L, Herlitz A (2006) Sex differences in cognition are stable over a 10-year period in adulthood and old age. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 13: 574-587.
  • Jorm A, Anstey K, Christensen H, Rodgers B (2004) Gender differences in cognitive abilities: The mediating role of health state and health habits. Intelligence 32: 7-23.
  • Maitland S, Intrieri R, Schaie W, Willis S (2000) Gender differences and changes in cognitive abilities across the adult life span. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition 7: 32-53.
  • Capitani E, Laiacona M, Basso (1998) Phonetically cued word-fluency, gender differences and aging: A reappraisal. Cortex 34: 779-783.
  • Chen P, Goedert KM, Murray E, Kelly K, Ahmeti S, et al. (2011) Spatial Bias and Right Hemisphere Function: Sex-Specific Changes with Aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 17: 455-462.
  • Larrabee G, Crook T (1993) Do men show more rapid age-associated decline in simulated everyday verbal memory than do women? Psychol Aging 8: 68-71.
  • Proust-Lima C, Amieva H, Letenneur L, Orgogozo J (2008) Gender and education impact on brain aging: A general cognitive factor approach. Psychol Aging 23: 608-620.
  • Elias M, Elias P, D'agostino R, Silbershatz H, Wolf P (1997) Role of Age, Education, and Gender on Cognitive Performance in the Framingham Heart Study: Community-Based Norms. Exp Aging Res 23: 201-235.
  • Maitland S, Herlitz A, Nyberg L, Bäckman L, Nilsson L (2004) Selective sex differences in declarative memory. Memory & Cognition 32: 1160-1169.
  • Van Exel E, Gussekloo J, De Craen A, Bootsma A, Houx P, et al. (2001) Cognitive function in the oldest old: women perform better than men. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 71: 29-32.
  • Capitani E, Laiacona M, Barbarotto R (1999) Gender affects word retrieval of certain categories in semantic fluency tasks. Neuropsychology 3: 273-278.
  • Tulving E (1995) Organization of memory Quo vadis? In: Gazzaniga M, The cognitive neurosciences. MIT Press, MA, Cambridge, 839-847.